英语语言学基础知识

英语语言学基础知识

一、绪论 语言学的定义 语言的定义 语言学的研究范畴 语言的甄别特征

几对基本概念

(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing

What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language

Language and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but

languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。 Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use

The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\\Phonology音系学\\Morphology形态学\\Syntax句法学\\Semantics语义学\\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language

\\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

Characteristics of language: 语言的特性 Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.

Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Language is a rule-governed system

Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. Language is basically vocal

Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous the description of a language as it changes through time

is a diachronic study quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)

in modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Language is used for human communication

Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Design features of language 语言的甄别特征 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: American linguist Charles Hackett specified 12 design features:

(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution

1) arbitrariness 武断性 4) displacement移位性 2) productivity 创造性 5) cultural transmission 文化传递性3) duality 二重性

二、音系学

语言的声音媒介 音系学和语音学 什么是语音学 语音、音位、音位变体 发音器官 音位对立、互补分部、最小对立 音标……宽式和严式标音法 几条音系规则 英语语音的分类 超切分特征

构成了语言的声音媒介。

Phonetics语音学: Is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;

it is concerned with all the sounds Two major media of communication: Speech and writing

The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic that occur in the world’s language. studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics

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听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 01) Velum: The soft palate. 软腭 Organs of speech 发音器官 02) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬

垂在软腭的小的圆锥状肉块 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:

The pharyngeal cavity咽腔----the throat 03) larynx: n. 喉 The oral cavity口腔----the mouth 04) vocal cord: 声带 The nasal cavity 鼻腔---the nose 05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, Vibration of the vocal cords (声带) results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” 浊音，which is a or organs of an animal or a

plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。 器官

单词补充：

06) the soft palate: 软腭 10) the teeth: 牙齿 07) the hard palate: 硬腭 11) the lips: 上下唇 08) the teeth ridge: 齿龈 12) blade of tongue: 舌面

13) back of tongue: 舌根 09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone

牙槽颚骨处的牙床 14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔

16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔 软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的(g)以及在 cup中的(k)

17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖 19) the roof of the mouth: 上颚 18) the upper front teeth: 上齿 20) the lower lip: 下唇 音标……宽式和严式标音法 :the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度

:the shape of the lips园唇与否 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs) 元音（单元音&双元音） :length of the vowels元音的长度 The constants 辅音

Broad transcription: Transcription with letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)

用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。

Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.

但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。

在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音

法。

Classification of English speech sounds

英语语音的分类

The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes

from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the

Phonology 音系学 latter it is obstructed in one way or another.

Classification of English constants Phonology and phonetics

英语辅音分类 音系学和语音学 Classification of English vowels Phonetics is of a general nature; It is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. :the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低 语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。

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复合词的类型 Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds

复合词的特征 in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words Phone，phoneme and allophone are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. 语音，音位，音位变体 形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。

Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language. 语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。 语素：语言最小的意义单位。 Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent) 音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的自由语素可以作为单词使用。 作用。 Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.

粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词 The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of

Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀) that phoneme.

音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes): 也就是

语音。 affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional

2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对 An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they adjective.

free=free root（自由词根） are in phonemic contrast.

可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。 Morpheme(词素) /P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. Bound root prefix

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same bound derivational place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben] affix suffix

最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。 inflectional

Some rules in phonology几条音系规则 Root and stem（词根和词干） Sequential rules 序列规则 ：Blik, klib, bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil, ilkb not possible. 1) Root 2) Stem

Assimilation rules 同化规则 The differences between root and stem: Deletion rule 省略规则 A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. Sign, design, there is no {g} sound A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes, can Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced. be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant. Individualistic Undesirables Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonation Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem) 超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调 Individual (stem) desirable (stem) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; dividual (stem) desire (root, stem) 超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。 divide(root, stem) 三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学 请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。 Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：Adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. 语素：语言最小的意义单位 Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 语素的类型 1)'表示否定'negative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.

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Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed 2)''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.

3)'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc. Verb + noun(动词＋名词)―――driveway, breakwater(挡水板) 4)'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc. Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）―――downtown, overburden 5)'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes: counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc. Noun + verb（名词＋动词）―――toothpick, snowfall

Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）―――follow-up, kick-off 6)locative prefixes: super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.

7)'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes: fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）―――world-famous, lifelong 8)'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc. -ing form + noun（ing+名词）―――baking power, dining-room 9)'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice- other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-law Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. Features of compounds复合词的特征

1.Orthographically书写特征 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes

Compounding复合法 （also called composition） （Compounds are written in three ways: solid(airmail) hyphenated(air-conditioning) open(air force, air raid)

2.Syntactically句法特征(复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性) Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems

3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和） Formation of compounds

Noun + noun（名词＋名词） ――― handbook, sunshine 4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上） Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）―――highway, deadline 四、句法学

句子的构成 X标杆理论

句子的类型 名词词组移位与WH移位 句子的线性排列与层次结构 其他类型的移位

词类 深层结构与表层结构

词组类 移动a规则

短语结构规则 普遍语法原则

短语结构 规则的循环性 普遍语法参数

The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构 Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.

As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are

produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的with other words to form grammatical sentences.

句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。 次都按线性次序排列。(表面上的排列)

The hierarchical structure of a sentence：Sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。 such as noun phrase (NP), or verb phrase (VP), grouped together.

The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。 句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。 Types of sentences句子的类型 Tree diagrams of sentence structure

The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its S

own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的句子 NP VP

The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句V S

含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分 NP VP

The complex sentence: Contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. V NP

The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个John suggested (that) Mary take the linguistics class.

以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。 The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点）

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Syntactic categories 句法类型

Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.

Lexical categories 词类

Major Lexical Categories主要词类

Noun(N)\\ Verb(V)\\Adjective(Adj)\\Adverb(Adv) 名词、动词、形容词、副词 Minor Lexical Categories

Determiner(Det)\\Auxiliary(Aux)\\Preposition(Prep)\\Pronoun(Pron)\\Conjunction(Conj)\\Interjection(Int)限定词、

助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词

Phrasal categories词组类

Noun phrase (NP)\\Verb phrase (VP)\\Prepositional phrase(PP)\\Adjective phrase(AP)

名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语

Grammatical relations 语法关系

Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional

relations of constituents called grammatical relations.

语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。

The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语 The logic subject (the doer of the action) and the logical object (the recipient of the action)

逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）

Combinational rules 组合规则

Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则

短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

NP—Det N (a/the man)

NP---Det Adj N PP S(the tall man with glasses that I met)

The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性 These rules

can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their

recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。

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