一 、选择题
1 语言描述 2.2.4.2 P21~22 参见课后习题第六题 21页图
i: Front Central Back u: ʊ Close i Semi-close e ɜ: ə ɔ: ɔ ɑ Semi-open æ ʌ Open ɑ 2 Suprasegmental features(超音段特征)-stress(动词变名词发音重读部位变化)；tone(声调)；Intonation(整个句子的语调，如陈述句和疑问句) 3 P3~6 (2~3分) 语言学中的一些重要的区分： Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描写性） Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性与历时性） Speech and writing （言语与文字） Language and parole （语言和言语）
Competence and performance （语言能力与语言运用）
Traditional grammar and modern linguistics （传统语法与现代语言学） Prescriptive,I s tell people what they should say or not, while prescriptive is to lay down rules for” correct and standard behavior in using language; at some point of tiem in history is a synchronic, while in a changes of time is a diachronic ;speaking is prior to writing; langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. competence as the
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ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication by N. chomsky. ; de. saussure traitional grammar and modern linguistics. 4 P67 Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
5 P72~76 Synonymy(意思相同或相近); Polysemy（一词多意table）；homonymy(ball);hyponymy(flower—rose/tulip/carnation); Antonymy(反义词)Old、young
6 Design features（识别特征）P9~11 1).Arbitrariness（任意性） 2).Productivity（能产性） 3).Duality（结构二重性） 4).Displacement（移置性）
5).Cultural transmission（文化传播性） 7 社会语言学概念性东西 P112~124
112 The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community.(各个地区有各自的语言).
116 Language and Gender: women more status-conscious than men; female speakers tend to wider range in their intonation while male use the low-rise intonation. female speech ,less assertive and thus souds to be more polite than male speech, female tend to use more often the question tag..
117. Idiolect is a personal dialect of individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.
122 Standard Dialect：It is the language employed by the government and jdiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as foreign or second language.
123 Pidgin and Creole: A pridgn is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
When a pridgn has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.
Bilingualism and diglossia (高低双语现象)：
It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.
1). location of the interaction
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2). formality-informality of the interaction 3). degree of intimacy of the speakers 4). degree of seriousness of the discourse 5). sex of the participants.
diglossia refers to the existence of two functionally different languages within a society. Swiss German Arabic Greek Haitian 二 判断 语言
词素的分类（形态学）Derivational and inflectional morphemes 派生词素（与其他词素相联合可以派生或形成新词）和屈折词素（很大程度上只是语法的标志，表示时态、数、格等概念） 词缀 社会语言学 语言习得
语义学（句子间的关系）P77~79 1) X is synonymous with Y.（同义） 2) X is inconsistent with Y. （不一致）
3) X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.) （X蕴含Y/ Y是X的一个含义） 4) X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X.) （X预设Y/ Y是X的先决条件） 5) X is a contradiction (X自我矛盾)
6) X is semantically anomalous （X语义反常） 语用学合作原则及4个分支
P89 言内行为 locutionary act 言外行为 illocutionary act 言后行为 per locutionary act
P92 The maxim of quantity （数量准则） （为了当前的会话）提供足够的信息；不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息 The maxim of quality （质量准则） 不说假
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High Hochdeutsch classical Katharevousa French Low Schweizerdeutsch colloquial Dhimotiki Creole 话；不说缺乏足够证据的话 The maxim of relation （关系准则） 有相关性 The maxim of manner （方式准则）避免表达艰涩；避免歧义；简洁，避免冗繁；有条理 三 填空
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i. e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language. Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing. 词义之间的关系（扩大、缩小和转换） P102~103
构词法 1分 P37~38 Coninage(walkman Kodak Xerox Ford);Clipped words(gym-gymnasium;
expo-exposition);Blending(smog-smoke+fog;motel-motor+hotel;brunch-breakfast+lunch;camcorder-camera+recorder;comsat-communication+satellite;videophone-video+telephone);Acronyms(CBS;ISBN;IT);Back-formation(to edit; to hawk; to beg ;to baby-sit; to butch);Functional shift(to knee; to bug; to tape; to tape; to brake; a hold ;a flyby; a reject ;a retreat; to cool; to narrow; to dim; to dim; to slow; a daily; a Christian; the rich; the impossible)Borrowing(外来词汇tea; kowtow sampan)
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辅音的分类
双唇音 Bilabial VL VD VL VD VL VD VD VD VD p b 唇齿音Labio-dental f v 齿音Dental θ ð 齿龈音Alveolar t d s z (tʃ) (dʒ) 腭音Palatal ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ 软腭音Velar k g 喉音Glottal h 闭塞音Stops 摩擦音Fricatives 塞擦音Affricates 鼻音Nasals 流音Liquids 滑音Glides 四 搭配
m n I, r w j 1 P90~91例句
Representatives:（阐述类） stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true9（陈述、信任、发誓、假设）
Directives:（指令类） trying to get the hearer to do something（邀请、建议、请求、忠告、警告、威胁、命令）
Commissives:（承诺类） committing the speaker himself to some future course of action（许诺、保证、发誓）
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Expressives:（表达类） expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state（道歉、感谢、祝贺）
Declarations:（宣告类） bringing about immediate changes by saying something
2 P72~76（考书上例子）
同义现象Synonymy、多义现象Polysemy、同音异义homonymy、下义关系hyponymy、反义词Antonymy 3 P98~101书上例子
创新词Coinage（新词） 、缩略词Clipped words（单词或词组缩写） 、紧缩法Blending（由其他词的某些部分构成的词） 、词首字母缩略词Acronyms（由几个单词的首字母构成的词） 、逆构词法Back-formation（去掉旧的词的词缀也可以创造新词） 、功能转换Functional shift（单词可以不通过加词缀就从一个词类转换到另一个词类） 、借用Borrowing（外来词）
五．问答题
1 the English and Chinese differences （P132~138 自选两个方面） （1）greetings and terms of address
English choose the proper greeting when they greet different people on different occasions. For example, people greet a new acquaintance with“How do you do” and expect the same in answer, but they greet an old friend differently. They are uttering “How are you?” at the same time to each other, and they both answer “Fine, thank you.” While, a Chinese speaker may greet his friends or new acquaintance with “Nihao” or “Nihao”, whether they meet for the first time or not.
In term of the address, there are some differences. Chinese people use “Tongzhi” to call all people irrespective of sex, position or marital status. While, in English-speaking communities, “Mr.” “Mrs.” “Miss” “Mrs.”” would be appropriate in similar situations. (2)Thanks and compliments
People in the West trend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that the westerners tend to accept thanks and compliments more directly and frankly than we Chinese do. For example, a native English speaker expresses to us his gratitude, a Chinese speaker may feel embarrassed and would sometimes say “no, no” to decline whatever expressions of gratitude.
2 举例说明家乡话和普通话在语音、词汇、语法上的差
3 怎样提高二语学习者英语学习的效果，结合自身 P166~173
In order to improve the second language learning, I suggest the young
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learners do what is followed. Firstly, the second language should be studied in a young age. According to the cognitive psychology theory, children, who are in the age of 3 to 6, is the most important time of language learning, regardless of the mother tongue or the second language. Besides, social psychologists also prove that people’s learning ability will decrease due to physiology issues and experiences. By which I want to say, with the increase of the age, people have more negative learning experiences, which will hinder the second language learning. Moreover, the children should be immersing the English environment as long as possible, which is called immersed learning. It is obvious that even if the Chinese children, who are brought to West country for a period of tiem, they will learn the language by nature. Similarly, we can also built a complete English environment for children. For example, we should advocate the all kinds of lesson teached in English. Thus, the language is not the learning content but the tool. Besides, in the home, parents could speak more English to the Children and provide the English cartoon, which aim to build up a English environment.
In order to improve the two language learners' English learning effect. We can do as follows. As we all know, listen, say, read and write are the four elements of learning English. As to our second language learners, these four aspects are all very important. At first, let’s talk about listen. It’s of vital importance for learners to create an English environment. We can watch English movies and television. To further improve we can listen to English radio, such as BBC, VOA etc.. We can also go to the English corner to practice listening and oral contact. Secondly, let’s turn to speak. There is no other way but practice. Thirdly the method to improve reading is to read more articles. We can read the classics books. On one hand, it has storyline. On the other hand, it can achieve the aim of practice reading. Fourth, writing is to write more, practice more. We can write English diary to practice, Meanwhile, we can also write with a native English speaker to practice. These are some of my learning methods.
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