维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Sep.2008,Volume 5,No.9(Serial No.57) Sino-US English Teaching,ISSNI 539-8072,USA Indirect strategies in language learning and teaching j ⅣG, (EnglishDepartmentofSocialSciencesandHumanities,Xi'an UniversityofTechnology,Xi'on 710048,China) Abstract:How to learn foreign language effectively is an extremely important topic for both teachers and learners.Learning strategies may play a crucial role in helping learning process What’s more,indirect learning strategies such as arranging,planning,evaluating,etc.are in some parts quite helpfu1.This paper provides some indirect learning strategies to both teachers and learners,which aims at arousing teachers and learners'attention for their impogance and usefulness. Key words:language learning strategies;indirect language learning strategies 1.Introduction As teachers,we usually consider why some students are more successful than others,and how we can help our students learn eficifently,etc.We may constantly change our teaching strategies on tasks,activities or methodology.Howeveg in most cases,the effects of sudentst learning are still minor.In fact,language teaching should be a unity of teaching and learning.When teachers develop their teaching strategies,it is necessary to take into consideration what is diferent from students in their learning.As a result,the study of lnguage laearning strategies has been a very populr atopic among researchers over the last twenty years.There is a great increase in the number of language learning strategies to help learners become proficiently in learning English.In this papeq according to the author’s experience he/she would like to discuss some learning strategies and their importance in changing,developing nd areinforcing lnguage alearning in China. 2.Definition of language learning strategies Firstly,from Wenden’s(1991)account,learning strategies are defined as various descriptions“techniques”, ‘'tactics”,‘‘conscious plan or operations'’,‘‘skills’’or“procedures”.It is a universal belief that learners can become successful in learning with the help of good and suitable learning strategies.In other words,effective learning strategies can play an active role in sudentts’learning process.In this paper,the focus will be on how language learning strategies have effects on language learning.In recent years,many researchers have discussed this literature. “Learning strategies are opermions employed by the learner to aid acquisition,storage,retrieval,and use of information...speciifc actions taken by he tlearner to make learning easier,fstaer,more enjoyable,more self-directed, more effective nd amore transferable to new situations.”(Oxford,1990,P.8) “…ny sets of aoperations,steps,plns,routianes,used by the learner to facilitate to the obtaining,storage,retrieval, and use ofinformation…that is,what learners do to learn and do to regulate heitr learning.(Rubin,1987,p.17) ‘‘Leaming strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their effortstodo so.”(Wenden,1991,P.18) YANG Yu-xia,lecturer ofEnglish Department ofSocil Sciences and aHumanities,Xi’an University ofTeclmology;research field: foreign language teaching. 11 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Indirect strategies in langua£e learning and teachi From the above definitions,we know that language learning strategies are mainly employed to promote learners to learn successfully with certain kinds oftechniques and steps. 3.Taxonomy of language learning strategies The classiifcation of types of language learning strategies is various(Oxford,l 990;Rubin,l 987;Wenden, 1 99 1;Ellis,1 994)and diferent researchers have diferent directions to study and sort language learning strategies. In the following part,some researchers’taxonomies of language learning strategies will be briefly introduced. 3.1 Ellis’(1994)classiifcation of language learning strategies In Ellis’book(1994),learning strategies can be divided into three types of substrategies:Production, communication and learning strategies.Based on Tarone in Ellis’book,the first two substrategies are“strategies of language use’’and“communication strategies”.A production strategy is trying to learn effectively and easily under the use of linguistic system including“simpliifcation”,“rehearsal”,and“discourse planning'’. Communication strategies are strategies used in handling problems of interaction and communication.Learning strategies focus on developing linguistic and sociolinguistic abilities about the target language such as “memorization”.“initiation of conversation with native speakers'’and“inferencing'’. 3.2 Wenden’s(1991)classiifcation of language learning strategies Based on Wenden’s view,there are two main kinds of learning strategiem Cognitive strategies and self-management strategies which are clariifed according to their functions in learning.Cognitive strategies are steps and operations used by learners to process both linguistic and sociolinguistic content.Another kind of strategies is self-management strtegiaes which are responsible for overseeing and managing in learning.In cognitive psychology field,self-management refers to metacognitive strategies or regulatory skills(e.g.Brown,et a1..1983 in Wenden).Methodology literature,they are viewed as the skills of self-directed learning(e.g.Holec, 1981 in Wenden). 3.3 Oxford’s(1990)classiifcation of language learning strategies With regards to Oxford.there are two main clssaes of lnguage laearning strategies,direct and indirect strategies.Oxford distinguishes learning strategies via strategies using target language.In Oxford’s view,direct strategies refer to‘‘strategies that directly involve the target language and require mental processing of the language’’(Oxford,1 990,P.37).While class of strategies is indirect ones which“provide indirect support for lnguage learning through focusing,plaanning,seeking opportunities,controlling anxiety,increase cooperation and empathy and other means’’(Oxford,1 990,P.1 5 1).Meanwhile,two main classes are broken into a large set 0f more speciifc clsses,such aas cognitive strategies,metacognitive strategies(creating mental linkages,applying images and sounds)etc. From the author,s personal view,he/she agrees with Oxford’statement.f0r Oxford provides us with the most comprehensive classiifcation of language learning strategies.The author will explain some learning strategies which in particulr arousae the author’s interest in more detail in the next part. 4.Learning background in China 4.1 English as an important and necessary tool in China Before stating the use of pedagogic application of learning strategies in language learning,it is necessary to make a clear illustration about the Chinese learning background.The first feature is why learning English has become so popular and signiifcant in China.Since 1 990s,it has been universally acknowledged that the 12 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Indirect strategies in language learnin ̄and teac development of China’s economy is the fastest in the world.China’s economic growth rate has reached 1 3 percent every year.For this reason,many private foreign businesses and joint ventures with foreign companies invest money to develop enterprises in China,which results in a great deal of educated people speaking English being needed in China(Cortazzi&JIN.1 996).In particular,China has been one of the members of WTO(world trade organization)and successfully applied for the right to hold the Olympic Game in 2008.Given these reasons, China needs more and more people with English abilities.Therefore,it is not surprising that in China many people regard learning English as a means to the bright future. 4.2 Teachers’role and students’role in teaching and learning The second feature is Chinese cultural background in the teaching and learning process.In the author’s personal view,teacher-centered approach still has a dominating position in many Chinese schools.Teacher’s role can not only lcad students to learn effectively and successfully,but also has a good influence on students’later leaming.From Confucius age,the notion of teacher-centered approach has deeply rooted in Chinese people’s mind.Teachers are the symbol of knowledge(Cortazzi&J1N,1 996).Moreover they have Paramount power in teaching process and they transmit knowledge to students without consideration of students’idea.Students have been passive receivers who have done what teachers have sked athem to do in most cases. In addition.now,due to the one.child policy in China.the only one child in one family is easily spoilt.At this time,teachers’dominant role has been reinforced since kindergarten.Therefore,in people’s mind,obedient, self-controlled,and submissive children are regarded as good children.In one investigation by western teachers about what is a good student in Chinese university.“Chinese students think that a good student should pay attention to the teacheg respect nd aobey the teacheg which are in the second important place in the investigation. The most surprising thing the western teachers find that Chinese students do not pose questions in clss ian that they think they should respect,obey and cooperate with teachers.If someone has questions,it usually indicates that the teacher cannot explain clearly,which will make the teacher lose face in front of the whole clsg’(Coratazzi &J1N,1 996).“In China when we were children,we were told that a good student should learn everything from the teache ̄In the clss,a agood student should keep quiet nd ajust listen.As time goes by,we’ve grown up nd awe have been used to keeping silence in Class”(Cortazzi&JIN,1 996,P.1 90). Another fatal factor is teacher’s leading role about learning strategies which is quite importnta in the learning process.In China,the learning process can be divided into three steps.In junior school,teachem are the dominators who are responsible for transmitting and explaining all information and students re apassive listeners nd raeceivers in class.In senior school,teachers are the instuctrors who should lead students to realize why they should learn by themselves;on the other hand,students may become participants of learning and they should review nd apreview in as well as out of classes.For university students,teacher is merely a helper nd guiader in class.At this time,students should be active learners in class and teachers should foster them how to learn.In practical teaching,many teachers do not Pay attention to the significance of students’ability in different phases. Giving lectures nd adominating the clss ain the whole time more or less destroy students’initiative in 1earning.In investigation.Chinese students are found they are eager to listen and remember teacher’s instruction from the beginning to the end rather than discuss and negotitae with each other even wih tteachers(Cortazzi&JIN,1 996). To some extent,that’s why Chinese students are characterized as shy,passive,independent and lacking in inititaive in learning(Lee,1 998). In the opinion of students,the norms of a good student re arather irdiculous.In fact,students should be active, brave,confident and cooperative in learning rather than obedient,passive,highly submerged.So,why not teach students learning strtegiaes from junior school?、 th the help of language learning strategies.students can not 13 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Indirect strategies in language learning and teaching only learn effectively and successfully but also have good influences on their later learning. 5.The implication of indirect learning strategies in teaching and learning With the above background on language learning and teaching in China and some related Iiterature.the author will focus on strategies classiifed in Oxford’s book(1 990)in this section.Oxford clearly clariifes two main classes of strategies:direct and indirect strategies that are interconnected and provide support for each other. Creating mental linkages,repetition and memorization,and trnslaating from L 1 to L2 which are direct strategies in Oxford’s book(1 990)are unconsciously or consciously used sometime by students.However,in comparison with the use of direct strategies,indirect strategies are easily neglected for they are not directly involved in both teaching and learning process. For this reason,indirect strategies which may change and strengthen learning process will be emphasized here.Based on Oxford(1 990),all indirect strategies which manage and contribute to lnguagea learning are relatively indirectly concerned with the target language.Besides,indirect strategies are helpful in all language learning situation and can be used for four language skills:Listening,speaking,reading and writing.In the following parts,the implication of three sets of indirect strategies will be explicitly illuminated. 5.1 Metacognitive strategies One set of important indirect strategies is metacognitive strategies which are intended to help learners to control and coordinate their own leaning process by the use of centering,arranging,plnniang and evaluating.As 0’Malley,et al(1 994)state that“students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direct ability to review their progress,accomplishments and future learning directions”(O’Malley,et al,1 987,P. 23).Similarly,Wenden(1986)says that metacognitive strategies are used to oversee,regulate or sell:direct language learning by plnniang,monitoring and evaluating(Wenden,1 99 1). If we go back to Chinese learning background,we can see that many Chinese students are lack of the abilities to regulte.contarol and evaluate their own sudites.One of the reasons is that sudentst do not think such kind of strategies will help their language learning.In fact metacognitive are vitally important for successful language learning.Oxford(1990,PP.136—139)categorizes three subgroups ofmetacognitive strategies and these strategies can be understood as a complete learning process rom ffirstly locating our study and then planning,arranging and practicing learning to finally summarizing and evaluating our learning,which are definitely meaningful and integrated approaches in learning process. Metacognitive strategies,such as learning arranging and planning are always put aside by many teachers and students.In the author’s opinion,the loss of any metacognitive strategies will cause learning incompletely and deficiently.Wenden(1 99 1)distinguishes some planning used by students.Students may assess their needs and likeness,and choose what they want to learn and how they should learn a language.Students may set their own learning goals.At last,students may plan to change their learning strtegiaes according to usefulness nd aSuccess in their learning.In the author’s teaching,to his/her surprise,some of the author’s students are successfullearners who do not struggle or fany tests and piles of homework,in other words,they still enjoy their spare time.While chatting with them,the author found that planning is the most commonly used strategy in their learning.Everyday they set diferent aims about what they should do today including listening to English news about 30 minutes, previewing the texts etc.Keeping to their aims,they finish their tasks step by step and choose their extra exercises to reinforce what they have learned in one day.Finally they may summarize what they do not understnd aand why they make mistakes.What they have done makes their learning process complete and effective・To the author’s concern,it is necessary to recommend this kind of strategies to other students. 14 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Indirect strategies in iangua2e learnint,and Self-evaluation is the third subclass of metacognitive strategies,which is the weakest part in Chinese teaching since teachers do not think that self-evaluation can be done by students.As a matter of fact,from a learner’s view,students are hosts in language leaming who know their study problems and learning styles wel1.If students are told why and how they should use these metacognitive strategies,they are able to plan their study effectively.“Learners simultaneously create and undergo the evaluation procedure,judging their achievement in relation to themselves against their own personal criteria,in accordance with their own objectives and leaming expectations”(Hemer-Stanchina&Holec,1 985,P.1 2).What makes teachers feel surprises in one investigation of ranking the rate of language learning strategies usage is that metacognitive strategies are in the second place used by students in their learning?(Grifiths&Pa 200 1).In the author’s teaching,the author found that the use of keeping diaries outside the class is a practical self-evaluation strategy for students which recorded what they have done in class,what problems they have in class and what they have learned.Meanwhile,Harris(1 997)suggests that teachers ought to encourage students to add some comments about their activities that they have done outside the classroom.At the end of the term,students’diaries may be viewed as a helpful indicator orf teachers to assess students’attitudes to leaning,help teachers to modify teaching methods immediately,and discover students’ problems that they dare not tell teachers directly.Furthermore,diaries can assist students to master their own learning process.As Chamot and O’Malley point out(1 994,P.1 1 9)“Self-rating requires the student to exercise a variety of learning strategies and higher order thinking skills that not only provide feedback to the student but also provide direction for future learning”. ‘ Obviously,students can become more active,initiative and realize what their problems are in learning by the use of metacognitive strategies in their learning.From the author’s own experience,the author is aware that teachers should create opportunities and encourage students to use so many metacognitive strategies s apossible as they can in their lnguage laearning so that‘‘metagonitive strategies make lnguage laearners more capable’’ (Oxford,1990,P.137). 5.2 Affective strategies The second level in indirect strategies is affective strategies which aim to help learners to learn by emotions, attitudes,motivation and values.Comparing with matecognitive strategies,affective strategies appear less familiar to both Chinese teachers and sudentts.As teachers,we seldom teach or use affective strategies for students’ lnguage laearning.However,we do acknowledge that affective strategies re aindispensable or flnguage laearning. “The affective side of the learner is probably one of the very biggest influences on language learning success or failure”(Oxford,1990,P.140).A good language learner may know how to control his emotions nd amotivate his interest in learning.On the other hand,a language learner who does not know how to regulate his feelings about learning or encourage himself may make him leam ineffectively nd aunsuccessfully. For lnguage aleaming,it is a big challenge or risk-taking tsk aorf Chinese students.They not only face a new and totally diferent language,but also undertake some risks even some failures in their learning occasionally. Therefore,how to help students to overcome some diiculfties such s aanxiety,disappointments,and demotivation in order to learn successfully and happily can be essential to teachers.In Oxford’s(1 990)book,there are three subgroups relted tao affective strategies.They are lowering your anxiety,encouraging yourself and taking your emotional temperature.These strategies are more related to psychological strategies in a sense.Asking his/her sudentts casually,they both feel that they have the feelings of anxiety or nervousness sometimes.They say that when they must do presentation in front of the whole clss,tahey will speak brokenly and incoherently due to nervousness.Therefore,before presentation,they take a deep breath nd mediatation for a while to relieve nxiaety. In particulr,tahe use of discussing feelings with peers and making encouraging statements to each other can make 15 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Indirect strateRies in lanRuaRe learnine and teachin them forget the nervousness. One thing Oxford(1990)mentions teachers must pay attention to is that“a certain amount of anxiety sometime help learners to reach their peak performance levels,but too much anxiety block language learning,. Harmful anxiety presents itself in many guises:worry,self-doubt,frustration,hopelessnessinsecurity fear and physica1 symptoms”(Oxford,1990,P.142).The author completely agrees with what Oxford says about it.Many Chinese students are beset by high anxiety,for instance,they have problems in language learning;they must face pressures from their parents,teachers,and schools;they must overcome the shock of failure in learning. Consequently,they feel sad and disappointed,and even have thoughts of giving up their learning in the end.At this point,helping students understand good lnguage learning strategies,and fosteriang them to develop and use them should be taken into account by our teachers immediately. 5.3 Social strategies According to Oxford(1 990)the third set of important indirect strategies are social strategies which help learners to learn language more effectively through asking questions,cooperating with others and empathizing with others.In the author’s experience,the use of social strategies does not arouse enough attention for both teachers and students in China.With the first subgroup strategy of skiang questions,the author feels strongly it is urgent for teachers to encourage students to use this in their language learning.As the author noted above,asking questions in Chinese learning background may appear as a kind of dissatisfaction with teacher’s explanation, which possible lead to lose teacher’s face in clss.For tahis reasoff,teachers do not advocate students to ask questions in the class.In addition,in lnguage laearning students are less active than in other subjects due to the language problems.Therefore,posing questions including clariicaftion or correction may be peculiar phenomena in English class.Conversely,the paper found asking questions does not challenge what teachers say and disobey teachers.In other words,it is possible to suggest that skiang questions is a good thing in teaching nd laearning.In the researcher’s opinion,raising questions in itself means that students concentrate on teachers’lectures and actively involve in and cooperate with teachers,from which teachers can know what students needs are and what problems they have.As Oxford states:“Asking questions helps learners get closer to the intended meaning and thus aid their understanding…and indicate interest and involvement”(Oxford,1 990,P.145). In addition to asking questions,coopertiang with others is also needed for language learning.There is no doubt that one’s intelligence is limited.Thus,cooperating with peers in particular with proficient learners may play a helpful role in lnguage laearning。In teamwork,every student has diferent understanding and benefits which they can share,exchange even add something to each other in order to fulifll the task.During coopertiaon, they can not only supplement some unknown information but gain some confidence or enjoyment of success. Oxford(1 990)presents that the use of cooperative learning strategies has some signiifcant effects such as increasing confidence,rapid achievement,enjoyment,respect orf teachers,schools nd aobjects,etc. 6.Conclusion In the papeg the researcher has not covered all the strategies introduced by researchers.The main purpose is to discuss the importance and practicability of some lnguage laearning strategies which in particulr have fafeat influences on my teaching and learning due to deficient use of them in Chinese cultural background.In short,this paper can be used as n aindicator to Chinese learners and teachers in their lter ateaching and learning. (to be continued on Page 33) 16 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
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