历史的价值.

历史不是一堆记录在案的数据，也不是一串被记载下来的事实的堆砌，它是一系列相互冲突的争论。这样，关于一个事件的实际意蕴、一个偶发事件究竟发生了什么、如何最准确地概括这个事件？这些争论就在历史的解释中属于最有价值的核心内容。当然，历史让我们认识自己；当然，它教导我们理解我们集体的过去并对之保持适当的尊重；当然，它还传授给我们一种特殊的技能，即如何提问，如何找到答案，如何合乎逻辑地、令人信服地、清晰地、有目的的思考；当然，它还是或应该是一种乐趣。但是，我们也发现，一个民族选择对其历史的何种阐释是至关重要的。当一个社会隐瞒其过去记录的某些部分，然后那个社会或其领导人向我们讲述他们自己的事情的时候；当一个社会试图改变历史记载所呈现的或已经有充分根据的事实的时候，我们知道，历史是如何出于政治目的被曲解的。

控制历史和控制如何写历史的人就控制了过去，而控制过去的人就控制了现在。那些想压制历史争论的人持两条理由：其一，在这个问题上，我们知道所有我们需要知道的；其二，我们关于这个问题的知识的正确性毋庸置疑，那些欲攻击普遍认识的人一定有破坏性的目的。持这种观点的人的做法最终恰恰会毁灭历史学本身的价值。因为历史学的价值就在于教会我们相互展开建设性的争论。

显然，历史是社会的需要。它赋予我们-。它为我们提供了多少可以用来指导方向的导航图，从而帮助我们在当今日益复杂的时代确定我们的方位。当我们问，我们是谁？我们如何成为我们所是的？我们会采取怀疑主义态度，求诸于批判性判断的起始阶段。作为一种叙事方式，历史学为我们提供了解释和分析的工具。它帮助我们发现特殊事例，去了解过去的时代或过去的事件中的独特性，同时也帮助我们了解，特殊性和独一性如何为普遍性做出贡献。历史学就是这样向我们展示人性在社会中的表现和表演，以及随着时间而发

生的变化。通过让我们体验其它生活样式，历史学向我们揭示了主观性和客观性双方的价值。这两者是我们个人认识我们生活于其中的世界的不可分割的前提，我们总是在这两者间摇摆但却几乎意识不到。这样，历史既有真理的形式，也有意见的内容。对历史的认真研究会帮助我们区分这两者。做出这种区分是重要的，如沃尔特•瑞雷（Walter Raleigh）爵士所说：“是意见而非真理能够无需通行证在世界上畅行无阻。”在大多数场合，我们从报纸、电视和朋友那里所读到、看到和听到并信以为真的东西是意见而不是事实。

历史学是一项活动，它通过追问具体的问题而达至一般性问题。像本书这样的教科书首要关注的是一般性问题，虽然它不时会提出具体问题或展示具体的事实，但那只是讨论一般性问题的途径。伟大的哲学家卡尔•雅斯帕尔斯(Karl Jaspers)一次评论道：“我是谁，我从哪里来？我首先学着从历史之镜中寻找答案。”严肃的历史著作所必须充当的正是这面镜子。

一谈到“文明”（本书即是文明的历史）立即就会陷入争论。所以，我们一开始就要解释为什么有些人如此恐惧历史研究。谈到“西方文明”甚至更受限制，在某些历史学家那里，它的范围过分狭窄。不过，如果我们将历史理解为一个过程，就必须通过特定的空间位置来把握它：我们的连续性、我们的标准、我们的进程等。我们还必须识别内含于“西方文明”概念的固有的两大偏见：其一，我们知道什么是“文明的”并达到了“文明的”标准；其二，西方作为一个整体，是单一的、具有内在统一性的文明单元。第二个偏见很容易发现。在我们大多数学者那里，在我们几乎所有的大学课程上，不讲“东方文明”（Eastern civilization），只讲“东方的各文明（the civilization of the East）”，这个术语表示，西方是一个单元，东方却不是。这些反映我们西方人世界观的习惯性的短语如同我们流行的地理书一样，表现了西方人的偏见。“近东”和“远东”中的“远”和“近”只是相对于西欧的地理位置而言。日本人不会将伦敦称为“远西”，将洛杉矶称为“远东”，尽管如果他们将自己所在的地方视为世界的中心，这两种说法或许都是正确的。由

于这个习惯短语已经成为我们西方语言传统，所以本书仍然采用这种用法。一个历史概念的使用和像本书这样的写法提醒我们，在我们的语言中存在着偏见，尽管我们不得不继续使用这种简便的习惯形式。

不过，如果谈文明，从一开始我们就得给出何谓“文明化”（being civilized）的定义。关于这个问题的书籍已是汗牛充栋。一般人常将那些说着不同语言、践行不同风俗的其他民族的人定义为“不文明（noncivilized）”（野蛮）的人。中国人习惯于将所有外国人都视为野蛮人，古代希腊人将不能用希腊语交流的人称为“吧尔吧人”（bar-bar），这些人不会说我们的话。如今，能够用一种以上语言交流仍是文明人的标志。这样，文明的定义至少在那些很少思考其用语的含义的人那里明显发生了变化。

可是，为了我们的目的，我们必须给这个概念一个较为确切的定义。因为对于一部涵盖整个西方的历史著作而言，文明这一概念是全书的一个指导和基本柜架。人类学家、社会学家、历史学家和其他人在诸如是否存在与英国和意大利文明不同的美国文明问题上存在分歧，他们也争论，这些文明是否仅是一个更大实体的变体，而那个更大实体——西方——才有资格称为文明。尽管这些争论是建设性的、需要的，但在我们这里无关宏旨。我们需要一个特别清晰的定义，以用来进行下面的叙述和分析。因此，这个操作性定义要求，“文明”包括一个社会或相互依存的一组社会的下列若干（尽管不需要全部）条件：

1.要有某种形式的政府，人们通过它满足自己的政治需要和履行相应的责任。

2.城市社会亦即城市生活要有某种程度的发展，从而使文化不是游牧的和分散的，这种游牧的和分散的文化不能留下有意义的物质遗迹。

3.人类已经成为工具制造者，通过使用金属，改造他们的物质环境，从而也改造他们

的社会经济环境，尽管这种改造是有限的。

4.某种程度的功能分化已经开始，通常发生在工作场所，而荣耀、地位和目标一起，成为社会的粘合剂。

5.社会阶级已经出现，不管他们是相互对抗还是相互依存。

6.书写形式已经发展起来，从而群体和群体间，更重要的是代际之间，可以通过文字交流。

7.闲暇的概念出现了。于是，生活不限于工作场所，也不是特定的阶级职责或分工。于是，比如说，艺术超出了（当然并不排除）仅仅作为装饰的局限，运动超出了竞技的范围。

8.要有更高存在的概念，尽管并不必然通过组织化的宗教。通过它，一个民族能够超越自己，在他们自身之外寻求事件的解释和发现他们的目标。

9.要有时间概念，通过它，一个社会将自己与过去和对未来的假想联系起来。

10.一种批评的能力发展起来。这种能力不需要西方的理性主义、直觉、特殊的宗教或政治机构，但是它必须存在。好使一个社会能够从内部进行变革，而不是等着来自外面的可能是毁灭性的打击。

西方最常见的偏见是用技术变革来衡量“进步”，根据这个标准，至少到历史的晚近时期，没有出现重大技术变革的社会是不开化的。事实上，尽管文字记录和重大技术变革存在于我们所称的“文明社会”，但两者都不是文明开化的本质性内容。当我们研究历史

时，或许我们应该记住英国批评家约翰•拉斯汀（John Ruskin）所记载的历史行为的三个内在要素：“伟大民族将他们的自传书写在三种稿本上：行为之书、言语之书和艺术之书。”

这里的问题不在于我们是否“从过去学到什么”。在大多数场合我们做不到，至少从简单的思维水平上来说是这样。作为一个国家，我们不会在外交事务中根据行为的某种程式来做出决定，仅仅因为类似的程式曾在过去有效。我们有足够的智慧了解到，环境改变了情势，而新知识带来新的责任。当然，个人“向过去学习”，遭到过抢劫的人以后会有警惕性。可是，将这样的经历拔高为“历史教训”，是将个人从孩童向成年人的成长经历变成历史，最多，这种成长是个人传记中的经历而已。

我们有时会从历史中记取“错误的教训”。事实上，那些热心地争辩未来的特殊行动方案能够从过去找到答案的人会说服头脑简单容易受骗的人，使他们相信历史会重复，因此，过去是未来的导引图。可是，没有一个严肃的历史学家会持这种观点。一般的模式或许重复，有时真的就会重复，但是，特殊的事件之链不会。政治科学、神学和科学等学科达到最高程度的概括，历史学与它们不同，它完全不相信铁的规律。但历史也不仅仅是一串没有联系的事件。的确存在一般性模式、因果链条、中间层面的概括，这是得到了证明的。这样，历史学就处在一个让许多人不满意的层面上：高于特殊(specific)，而低于绝对(absolute)。

如果复杂的问题从不以同样形式或以可辨识的类似的形式重复——如果那样，借用一句惯常的军事比喻，将军就不必为了下一场战争而是为前一场战争做准备了——那么，历史研究能够为社会解决自己的问题提供什么帮助呢？答案无疑是肯定的，但只是在有限的意义上。历史为人类在各种场合的行为提供一套丰富的诊断报告，个人的和集体的，政治、经济、军事、社会和文化的，然后详尽地告诉我们，人类曾经怎样处理他们的事务，从而揭示出当今如何处理同样问题的方式。哈里•S.杜鲁门(Harry S.Truman)总统的国务卿，前

参谋长乔治•马歇尔（George Marshall）将军有一次曾评论说：如果不考虑公元前5世纪雅典的衰落，没有人能够理解50年代的问题。他当时提到了关于雅典与斯巴达战争的杰出的历史著作，这部著作由一位参加战争的雅典人修昔底德（Thucydides）在战争刚刚结束后完成。在公元前5世纪，没有原子弹，没有电子通讯，没有枪或火药，战争的后勤系统完全是原始的，但是，二千三百年后，美国一位最杰出的军事和政治领导人发现，他思考问题还离不开修昔底德。

历史学只能大致把握人类行为的范围，把握某些极端行为或一般行为。尽管不能尽善尽美，但它能够揭示，如何或在什么范围内，人类行为会发生变化。这最后一点对于社会科学家、经济学家、社会学家、管理人员、记者或外交官都是至关重要的。那些鼓舞人心的领导人，如先知、改革家、政治家等，如果掌握了历史所提供的材料，会在领导我们走上新的道路时做得更好。因为它能够告诉我们，人类的什么东西是可以持久的或不能持久的，如同科学和技术告诉工程师，金属能够承受什么样的张力。历史也提供关于空间和时间深度的知识，能够消解改革者的乐观主义和过分自信。比如，我们可能希望保护我们生活于其中的环境，消除酸雨，净化我们的河流，保护我们的野生动物，保留我们壮观的自然景色。历史也许告诉我们，大多数这样做的人都失败了。它或许能够给我们某种指导，以免重蹈覆辙。不过历史还会告诉我们，个人和公众在如何做才能最好地保护环境问题上存在着重大分歧。有许多人认为，这种保护是没有必要的。有一些相信保护环境是必要，但他们也同样认为，低水平的环保必须让位于利用自然资源的更高水平的生产。历史能够提供一种解决方案，使不同意见相互理解，但求助于历史并不能使立法通过，使愤怒变成兴奋，使未来更干净更安全。历史不能定义河流污染，但历史可以提供过去的数据作为比较的尺度。这个定义会来自于当前的政治或我们关于明天的判断而不是历史。历史服务于长跑、有时服务于中跑，但很少服务于短跑。

这样，如果我们愿意将“相关性”理解为不像科学的直接应用性那样容易看到，也比

直接行动更遥远，那么，我们也许得承认，历史就是“相关联的”。它不是实际去建设高速公路，或清除贫民窟，但他能给做这些事的人大量的帮助。忽视了它，就会在实际行动中导致失败。

但是，历史也是娱乐，至少对那些乐得让自己的好奇心所驱使的人是如此。像俄国的凯瑟琳大帝(Catherine the Great)在一段时间里有多少情人，他们在皇帝卧室里的行为有多大影响，这样的问题我们是否宁愿将其视为历史的奇谈？历史调查的一些细节，譬如，在一艘沉没的维京人的海盗船上发现的珍宝与盎格鲁—撒克逊诗人所描述的沉船宝藏之间的关系是怎样的？还有更复杂的因果关系问题，如革命知识分子的作品对革命的实际影响是怎样的？以及政治和经济的关系，如现代西班牙霸权的兴衰在多大程度上受新世界黄金和白银供给的影响？抑或文化议题，如西欧为什么采取复兴古典希腊和罗马的文学和艺术，而不是转向某种新的实验？那些对历史感兴趣的人会如饥似渴地阅读以发现他们想得到的答案。找到答案后，他们还要进一步追问，我们已有的知识是如何获得的。还要转向在时间上最接近相关人物和问题的材料，转向相关人物原始的语言。阅读苏格拉底、哥伦布、邱吉尔是有趣的，阅读他们自己的文字，仿佛与他们本人交谈更有意思。在语境中考察他们是重要的，至少同样重要的是，考察我们是如何理解他们的思想，并使他们的思想适合于我们的目的的。读者会发现通向充满宝藏的历史领域的道路，如果依赖从过去和现在的意见中提炼出来的意见，对此能够提供的帮助是可怜的。他们还能够通过编年表、传记、图画、地图得到帮助，历史学家们通过这些东西与读者分享快乐和直观的感觉。

最后，认识过去就是认识我们自己——不是完全的，也并不充分，只是改进了一些我们对自己的认识。历史能够帮助我们养成优美和高雅的行为，中肯和彻底的思想，在人与人的关系上的和谐与宽容。最为重要的是，历史给我们一种兴奋感，观察或参与我们周围那些有一天也会成为历史的事件的激情。

历史是叙述，是故事，它虽然承认许多令人着迷的节外旁枝的意义，但它首先关注宏大课题。因为历史主要关涉人们如何与为何如此行为，关涉人们的思想和信仰的模式。说到底，历史关涉到什么是人们确信为正确的东西。在这个意义上，几乎所有的历史都是认识和思考（intellectual）的历史，因为，特殊的条约、战争和科学发现的意义依赖于卷入其中的那些人，那些追随自己思想的人。历史证明，我们会死，就如我们可能会活着。这是因为，在久远的过去，一些人就对此确信不移。

我们每个人不能成为自己的历史学家。在日常生活中，我们可能不断重构我们的过去，像侦探所理解的那样在我们的动机和态度的支配下去做事，但正规的历史学研究是相当严谨的研究。历史研究可能赋予我们某种非常有限的预卜未来的能力。更为确定的是，它会帮助我们将特定事件的原因组织在意义的模式中。历史还会帮助我们宽容其他人的历史观点，既便它帮助我们形成了自己的信念。历史会帮助我们从不太重要中挑出重要，从不相关中挑出相关，从而使我们不至于以头脑简单的方案去应对人类相当复杂的问题。我们必须抵制一种倾向，将我们的问题归咎于一个团体或个人，我们也必须有力地捍卫我们的信仰。

承认甚至赞美全部文明的价值对于文明生活本身是至关重要的。我们通过我们特殊的历史经历的多棱镜认识全部文明。我们热爱自己的历史，在自己的历史中我们感到舒适和安全。借助于它，我们解释我们所遇到的所有其它事情。明了这一点，就是要承认我们也是历史的产物。这就是为什么我们要学习历史，以我们的方式提出我们的问题。因为，如果我们没有向我们的过去提问，也就不能向未来提问。

本文为耶鲁大学的温克教授为多卷本《牛津欧洲史》撰写的序言，丛日云译。该书中译本由丛日云教授主编，吉林出版集团2009年4月出版。

History is not a bunch of recorded data, nor is the fact that a string is recorded in the pile, which is a series of conflicting arguments.Thus, on the actual meaning of an event, a random event what happened and how to most accurately summed up this event?The debate on the interpretation of history is the core of the most valuable.Of course, we understand their own history;, of course, it teaches us to understand our collective past and it remains proper respect;, of course, also provide us with a special skill, that is, how to ask questions, how to find the answer, how logicaland convincingly, the clear and purposeful thinking;, of course, it is or should be a pleasure.However, we also found that a history of peoples to choose what their interpretation is critical.When a society to conceal certain parts of its past record, then that society or its leaders to tell us something of their own time; When a society trying to change the historical record or has been presented by the facts sufficient, weknow how history has been misinterpreted for political purposes.Control history and control people how to write the history of control of the past, and that people who control the past control the present.History arguments those who want to suppress people who two reasons: First, in this issue, we know all we need to know; Second, the knowledge we have on this issue beyond doubt the correctness of those who want to attack widespread recognitionmust have a destructive purpose.People who hold this view is precisely the practice will eventually destroy the value of history itself.Because history teaches us is that the value of constructive debate with each other.Clearly, the history of society.It gives us identity.It provides us with the number can be used to guide the direction of the navigation map to help us in today's era of increasingly complex to determine our position.When we asked, Who are we?How do we become what we are in?We will adopt a skeptical attitude, seeking to determine all

the critical initial phase.As a narrative, history provides us with explanations and analysis tools.It helps us find a special case, to understand the times in the past or past the uniqueness of the event, but also help us understand how special and unique nature contribute to the universality.History shows us that humanity is in society's performance and the performances, as well as changes over time.Let us live through the experience of other styles, history reveals to us the value of both subjectivity and objectivity.This is our personal understanding of both the world in which we live the premise of the indivisibility, and we always swing between the two but hardly aware of.In this way, the truth of history in the form of both, but also the content of comments.Careful study of history will help us distinguish between the two.To make this distinction is important, such as Walter • Riley (Walter Raleigh), Sir, said: \"is an opinion not truth to the world unimpeded without permits.\" In most cases, from the newspapers, television and friendsThere are read, seen and heard and believed what is an opinion rather than fact.History is an activity that by asking specific questions and to reach a general problem.This book is a textbook as the primary concern is the general problem, although it raised specific issues from time to time, or show specific facts, but only a general discussion of the problem.The great philosopher Karl • 雅斯帕尔斯 (Karl Jaspers) once commented: \"Who am I, I come from? I first learned from the history of the mirror to find the answer.\" Serious historical work must act asIt is this mirror.The mention of \"civilization\" (the book is the history of civilization) will fall into an immediate controversy.So, as we will begin to explain why some people so afraid to historical research.Talk about \"Western civilization\" or even more restricted, in some historians there, its scope too narrow.However, if we understand history as a process, it must be through a specific spatial location to grasp it: our continuity,

our standards, our processes and so on.We must also recognize embedded in \"Western civilization\" inherent in the concept of the two biases: first, we know what is \"civilized\" and have reached the \"civilized\" standards; Second, the West as a whole, is a singlewith the inner unity of the civilized unit.The second bias is easy to find.Where most of us academics, almost all universities in our courses, do not speak the \"Oriental civilization\" (Eastern civilization), they talk about \"Eastern civilizations (the civilization of the East)\not.These reflect the customary view of the world we in the West as we have the popular phrase geography book, the performance of Western bias.\"Near East\" and \"Far East\" in the \"far\" and \"near\" is relative to Western Europe geographically.The Japanese will not be in London called the \"Far West\\"Far East\arguments are probably correct.Because this phrase has become our habit of the traditional Western languages, so the book is still uses such usage.The use of a historical concept and wording such as this book reminds us, in our language there is bias, although we have to continue the habit of using this simple form.However, if the talk about civilization, from the beginning we have to give the meaning of \"civilization\" (being civilized) of the definition.Books on this subject is voluminous.Most people will be those who speak different languages, practice different customs of other nationalities as \"uncivilized (noncivilized)\" (barbarian) people.Chinese people are accustomed to all foreigners as barbarians, the ancient Greeks will not be able to communicate in Greek called \"Seoul right now people\" (bar-bar), they will not say our words.Today, more than one language can communicate with is still a sign of civilized man.Thus, the definition of civilization, at least those who rarely think about their meaning of the term, where the person

was changed.However, for our purposes, we must give this concept a more precise definition.Because for a book covering the whole of Western history, the concept of civilization is a guide book and the basic rack.Anthropologists, sociologists, historians and others such as the existence of different civilizations and the United Kingdom and Italy, the United States divided on the issue of civilization, they argue, these civilizations are only a variant of a larger entity, andthe larger entity - the West - have qualified to be called civilization.Although the debate is constructive, and necessary, but irrelevant here.We need a clear definition of special to be used for the following description and analysis.Therefore, the operational definition of requirements, \"civilized\" includes a society or a group of interdependent community following several (though not all) conditions: 1. To have some form of government, the people through its own political needs to satisfyand fulfill the corresponding responsibilities.2. Urban society that is urban life to have some degree of development, so that the culture is not nomadic and dispersed, and dispersed this nomadic culture can not leave the material remains meaningful.3. Mankind has become a tool maker, through the use of metal, to transform their physical environment, and thus transform their social and economic environment, although this transformation is limited.4. Some degree of functional differentiation has begun, usually occurs in the workplace, and honor, status and goals together, become a social glue.5. Social class has emerged, against each other or whether they are interdependent.6. Written form has been developed to groups and populations, more importantly, between generations, through written communication.7. Leisure concept emerged.Thus, living not limited to the workplace, nor is it a particular class or division of responsibilities.Thus, for example, art beyond the (of course does not rule out) the limitations of simply as

decoration, sports beyond the competitive range.8. There should be a higher concept, although not necessarily through organized religion.Through which a nation can go beyond themselves, beyond the search for events in their own interpretation and find their target.9. To have the concept of time through which a society will have their own imaginary past and the future link.10. A critical ability to develop.This capability does not need Western rationalism, intuition, special religious or political institutions, but it must exist.So that a society can change from within, rather than waiting for from the outside may be devastating.The most common bias in Western technological change is measured by \"progress\according to this standard, at least until the recent period of history, no major technological change is uncivilized society.In fact, although written records, and major technological changes in our call \"civil society\civilized sexual content.When we study history, perhaps we should remember that the British critic John • La Siting (John Ruskin) of the recorded history of internal elements of the three acts: \"great nation, to write their autobiography on the script in three: Behaviorbook, words of books and art books. \"The problem here is not whether we\" learn anything from the past. \"In most cases we can not, at least from the simple level of thinking is this.As a nation, we do not act in foreign affairs under certain programs to make a decision, simply because similar programs have been effective in the past.We have enough wisdom understand that the environment has changed the situation, and bring new knowledge and new responsibilities.Of course, individuals \"learn from the past\" had been robbed of the people will have the vigilance.However, this experience will be overstating the \"lessons of history\" is the personal growth from childhood to adult experiences into history, at most, a personal biography of this growth experience of

it.Sometimes we remember from history, \"the wrong lesson.\"In fact, keen to argue that the special action program to the future from the past to find the answer simple-minded people who will convince gullible people that they believe that history will repeat, therefore, the past is the future guidance map.However, no serious historian would hold this view.The general pattern may repeat, do sometimes will repeat, however, the chain is not a special event.Political science, theology and science disciplines to the highest level of generalization, history, and they are different, do not believe it is the iron law.But history is not just a bunch of no contact events.General patterns do exist, the causal chain, the middle level of generalization, which is has been proven.Thus, in a history to many people dissatisfied with the level: higher than the special (specific), but lower than the absolute (absolute).If the complex problems never in the same manner or in the form of recognizable repetition of similar - if so, to borrow a military analogy usual, the general would not have to but for the next war to get ready before the war -So, historical research can solve their own problems for the community to provide any help?The answer is undoubtedly yes, but only in a limited sense.History of human behavior in a variety of occasions, providing a rich set of diagnostic reports, individual and collective, political, economic, military, social and cultural, and detailed to tell us how human beings have to deal with their affairs, which revealsout today how to deal with the same problems.Harry • S. Truman (Harry S. Truman) President's Secretary of State, former Chief of Staff George • Marshall (George Marshall) was once General comments: If you do not take into account the decline of the 5th century BC Athens, no one can understand the 50'sproblem.He was referred to the war on Athens and Sparta, the outstanding historical works, this book by the Athenians who participated in the war

Thucydides (Thucydides) after the end of the war had just completed.In the 5th century BC, there is no bomb, no electronic communication, no guns or gunpowder, war logistics system is completely original, but twenty-three hundred years later, the United States one of the most outstanding military and political leaders that he thoughtissues that can not be separated Thucydides.Grasp of history can only be roughly the range of human behavior, take some extreme actions or general behavior.Although not perfect, but it can reveal how or to what extent, human behavior will change.This last point for social scientists, economists, sociologists, managers, journalists or diplomats, are essential.Those inspiring leaders, such as prophets, reformers, politicians, etc., if the master of the history of the materials provided, will be leading us down new roads better.Because it can tell us what human beings can be sustained or not sustained, as in science and technology to tell engineers what kind of metal to withstand the tension.History also provides information on depth of knowledge of space and time, the optimism of the reformers to digestion and over-confident.For example, we may want to protect the environment in which we live, to eliminate acid rain, clean up our rivers, to protect our wildlife, preserve our spectacular natural scenery.History may tell us that most who do so have failed.It may be able to give us some guidance in order to avoid making the same mistakes.But history also tells us how individuals and the public can best protect the environment that there are major differences.Many people believe that this protection is not necessary.Some believe it is necessary to protect the environment, but they also believe that low levels of environmental protection must be allowed in the use of natural resources, higher levels of production.History can provide a solution, so that mutual understanding of different opinions, but to resort to legislative history does not make through, so

that anger becomes excited, so that future cleaner and safer.History can not be defined river pollution, but history can provide historical data for comparison of the scale.This definition comes from the current political or our judgments about the future, not history.History of service in long-distance running, sometimes serving in the running, but few services in the sprint.Thus, if we are willing to \"relevance\" as the direct application of science not as easy to see that more distant than the direct action, then we may have to admit that history is \"associated.\"It is not practical to build highways, or slum clearance, but he can give people who do these things a lot of help.Ignore it, it will lead to failure in action.However, history is fun, at least for those happy to let his curiosity of the people are so driven.Like Catherine the Great of Russia (Catherine the Great) in the period of time, the number of lovers, their behavior in the imperial bedroom have little impact, so the question whether we would rather be considered as the history of adventures?Historical survey of some of the details, for example, in a sunken pirate ship Viking treasure found with the Anglo - Saxon poet describes the relationship between the shipwreck treasure what?There are even more complex issue of causation, such as the works of the revolutionary intellectuals of the revolution, what is the real impact?And political and economic relations, such as the rise and fall of modern Spanish hegemony by the New World in the extent to which the supply of gold and silver?Or cultural issues, such as the revival of Western Europe, why do take Greek and Roman classical literature and art, rather than turn to a new experiment?Those interested in history people will eagerly read to find the answers they want.Find the answer, they will further pursue the matter, we have knowledge is how to get the.Closest in time but also turned to people and issues related to the material, turning the original language of the relevant figures.Read

Socrates, Columbus, Churchill is interesting, reading their own words, as if I talk with them more interesting.In the context of their study is important, at least equally important to study how we understand their thoughts, their ideas and make suitable for our purpose.Readers will find the history leading to field full of treasures the road, if you rely on advice from the past and present views of extracted, which can provide help is poor.They are also able to chronology, biography, pictures, maps, get help, historians have these things to share with readers the feeling of happiness and intuitive.Finally, understanding the past is to know ourselves - not complete, it is not sufficient, but improved understanding of some of our own.History can help us develop the behavior of the beautiful and elegant, balanced and thorough thinking, interpersonal relations in harmony and tolerance.Most importantly, history gives us a sense of excitement to observe or participate in those around us will one day become the historical events of the passion.History is the narrative, the story, although it acknowledged that many fascinating offshoot of the meaning of section outside, but it is primarily concerned with great issues.Mainly concerned because the history of how and why such a behavior, concerned with people's thinking patterns and beliefs.After all, history touches so much of what people believe is the right thing.In this sense, almost all history is knowledge and thinking (intellectual) history, because of special treaties, war and scientific discovery depends on the involvement of one of those people, those who follow their own ideas.History shows that we will die, as we may live.This is because, in the distant past, some people believe this unwavering.Each of us can not become his own historian.In daily life, we may continue to reconstruct our past, like the detective, as we understand the motives and attitudes of domination continue to do things, but formal study of history is

very rigorous research.Study of history might give us a very limited ability to predict the future.More certain, it will help a specific cause of the event will be organized in the sense mode.History will also help us to other people's history of tolerance point of view, it would help us both to form their own beliefs.History will help us to pick out the important from the less important, and never pick out relevant related, so we are not so simple-minded solution to the human to deal with very complex issues.We must resist a tendency to blame our problems will be a group or individual, we must vigorously defend our faith.Recognition of all the values of civilization and even praise for the civilized life itself is crucial.Through our unique understanding of the historical experience of the prism of all civilization.We love our history, our history in their own comfort and safety.With it, we explained that we encounter all the other things.Understand this, is to admit we are a product of history.That is why we study history, made our way to our questions.Because if we do not have to question our past, the future will not be able to ask questions.